Investigating the relationship between social presence and transactional distance in online distance learning environments through structural equation modeling analysis

While digitalization has increased flexibility in online distance learning, it has also brought challenges such as emotional strain, interactional issues, and social isolation. In this context, students’ sense of social “presence” is vital for sustaining their well-being and ensuring high-quality interaction. Grounded in Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) and the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework, this study modeled the relationships between social presence (SP) and interaction types within the using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The Social Presence and Transactional Distance Scales were used as data collection instruments. The sample comprised 574 online distance learners, with data collected via an online questionnaire. The results of the SEM analysis showed that SP was a significant positive predictor of all interaction types. Findings show that SP most strongly influences student–student and student–learning environment interactions, while also significantly enhancing student–instructor, student–content, and student–interface interactions. These results indicate that online learning environments should support not only content delivery but also meaningful social interaction. The study highlights the value of SP-oriented design in open, online and distance education systems and offers strategic recommendations for instructors, content developers, and digital learning administrators. Future research should compare synchronous and asynchronous learning structures.